Бесплатный фрагмент - English in Anatomy

ENGLISH IN ANATOMY

Учебное пособие по английскому языку для студентов медицинских вузов

Предисловие

Пособие предназначено для развития навыков чтения и говорения студентов медицинских вузов в области нормальной анатомии, или морфологии человека. Для аналитического чтения с последующим обсуждением предложен ряд тем, связанных с некоторыми основными системами жизнедеятельности человека, которые рассматриваются в анатомическом и, отчасти, физиологическом аспектах. Дополнительная цель пособия — подчеркнуть роль латинского языка в формировании подъязыка анатомии. Для этого в текстах термины, заимствованные из латинского языка, получили отдельное объяснение, связанное с латинской грамматикой, после текстов даны специальные упражнения, позволяющие сопоставить латинские термины и их английские аналоги. Важной задачей автор считает умение развивать поставленную тему в обсуждении с использованием дополнительных источников информации, для этого составлены специальные вопросы для развития под подзаголовком Something to Think about, некоторые из которых имеют подсказки Clues. Наконец, в некоторых главах пособия обучающиеся найдут терминоэлементы греческого происхождения Combining Forms, задания обобщающего характера Review и, в конце пособия, англо-русский терминологический словарь Vocabulary с отдельным списком наиболее употребительных глаголов в текстах по анатомии. В пособии есть два приложения для работы с грамматическими темами Ing-forms и Infinitive. Пособие может использоваться как для аудиторной работы под руководством преподавателя, так и для самостоятельной работы.

Chapter 1. Terms Pertaining to the Body as a Whole

Text 1. The Cell

The cell is the fundamental unit of every living thing. Cells are everywhere in the human body — every tissue, every organ, is made up of these individual units.

All cells are similar in that they contain a gelatinous substance composed of water, protein, sugar, acids, fats, and minerals. This substance is called protoplasm.

Cell membrane surrounds and protects the internal environment of the cell, determining what passes in and out of the cell.

Nucleus is the controlling structure of the cell. It controls the way a cell reproduces, and contains genetic material which determines the functioning and structure of the cell. All the material within the nucleus is called nucleoplasm or karyoplasm.

NB! Words of Latin origin in -us commonly form their plural by dropping the -us and adding -i. Thus, nucleus becomes nuclei.

Chromosomes are 23 pairs of thin strands of genetic material (DNA) located within the nucleus of a cell. These 23 pairs of chromosomes contain regions known as genes which determine our hereditary makeup. The DNA within the chromosomes regulates the activities of each cell by guiding the formation of another substance, called RNA, which can leave the cell nucleus, enter the cytoplasm, and direct the activities of the cell.

Chromosomes can be classified as to size, arrangement, and number. This classification is called a karyotype. Karyotyping of chromosomes is useful in determining whether chromosomes are normal in number and structure.

Cytoplasm is the protoplasmic material outside the nucleus. It carries on the work of the cell. The cytoplasm contains:

Mitochondria — small bodies which carry on the production of energy in the cell by burning food in the presence of oxygen. This process is called catabolism. During catabolism complex structures are broken down into simpler substances and energy is released.

Endoplasmic reticulum — a series of canals within the cell. Some canals contain small bodies called ribosomes which help make substances for the cell. This building-up process is called anabolism. Together the processes of catabolism and anabolism constitute the total metabolism of the cell.

Cells are different, or specialized, throughout the body to carry out their individual functions.

Combining Forms

ana- — up

bol- — to cast or throw

cata- — down

cyto- — cell

endo- — inside

karyo- — nucleus

meta- — transfer, transition

— plasma — formation; contents

— some — body

Tasks

1. Build medical terms using combining forms:

process of food breakdown to produce energy

contents of the cell

2. Answer the questions:

1. What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

2. Describe the location of chromosomes.

3. Describe the function of chromosomes.

4. What are substances in the cytoplasm of the cell which produce energy by chemically burning food in the presence of oxygen?

5. What structure contains the hereditary material (DNA) of the cell?

6. What term is used to name building-up, or synthesizing, process in the cell.

7. What term is used to name breaking-down, or destruction, process in the cell.

8. What are structures in cytoplasm of cell which are the site of protein synthesis?

9. How do we call the network of canals in cell?

10. What is the name for total of building-up and breaking-down processes in cell?

3. Read the description of different cells and find out what they are. Choose the correct answer from the given ones: skin cell, nerve cell, muscle cell, fat cell

— this cell is long and slender and contains fibers which aid in contracting and relaxing;

— this cell may be square and flat to provide protection;

— this cell may be quite long and have various extensions which aid it in its job of carrying impulses;

— this cell contains large, empty spaces for storage

Text 2. Tissues

A tissue is a group of similar cells working together to do a specific job.

Epithelial tissue is located in glands, skin, the digestive tract, and the urinary tract. It is necessary for protection, lining tubes, and secretion.

Connective tissue can be fat (also called adipose tissue), cartilage, bone, or blood.

Nerve tissue conducts impulses all over the body.

Muscle tissue is found in parts of the body where movement is voluntary (arms, legs, etc.), and in other places where movement is not under conscious control (heart, digestive system).

Combining Forms

histo- — tissue

— logist — one who specializes in any study

— logy — process of study

Tasks

1. Build medical terms using combining forms:

process of study of tissues

a scientist who specializes in the study of tissues

2. Answer the questions:

— What is adipose tissue?

— What is epithelial tissue?

Text 3. Organs and Systems

Organs are structures composed of several kinds of tissue. For example, the stomach is composed of muscle tissue, nerve tissue, and glandular epithelial tissue. The medical term for internal organs is viscera. Systems are groups of organs working together to perform complex functions.

Tasks

1. Find out the singular number for the word «viscera» taking into account its Latin origin.

2. Examine lists of the body organs and find out the corresponding name of the body system which they belong to: nervous, urinary, digestive, endocrine

— mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas;

— kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

— thyroid gland, pituitary gland, sex glands, adrenal glands, islets of Langerhans, parathyroid glands, pineal gland, thymus

— brain, spinal cord, nerves

Text 4. Positional and Directional Terms

Afferent — conducting toward a structure.

Efferent — conducting away from a structure.

Anterior (ventral) — in front of the body. Ventral and anterior mean the same position in the human.

Posterior (dorsal) — back of the body. Dorsal means the same position as posterior.

Central — pertaining to the center.

Deep — away from the surface.

Superficial — near the surface.

Distal — away from the beginning of a structure.

Proximal — pertaining to the beginning of a structure.

Inferior (caudal) — away from the head, situated below another structure.

Superior (cephalic) — pertaining to the head, situated above another structure.

Lateral — pertaining to the side.

Medial — pertaining to the middle.

Tasks

1. Fill the blanks with appropriate positional and directional terms:

— Arteries are… blood vessels since they take blood away from the heart.

— The abdomen is located… to the spinal cord.

— The heart is located in the… portion of the thoracic cavity.

— Veins are called… vessels since they take blood toward the heart.

— The… lobes of the brain are in the back of the head and are called the occipital lobes.

— At the… end, the femur joins with the patella.

— The… end of the femur joins with the pelvic bone.

— The wound was a… one, just penetrating the skin.

— In a… presentation of the fetus, the head comes through the birth canal first.

— The lesion penetrated… into the abdomen, away from the surface of the body.

— The fifth finger lies… to the other fingers.

— The feet are the… parts of the human body.

— The little toes are… to the big toes.

2. Give the opposites of the following terms:

deep; afferent; proximal; ventral; posterior; caudal

Text 5. Planes of the Body

A plane is an imaginary flat surface. The planes of the body are:

— Frontal (coronal) — vertical plane which divides the body or structure into anterior and posterior portions.

— Sagittal — lengthwise vertical plane which divides the body or structure into right and left portions. The midsagittal plane divides the body into right and left halves.

— Transverse — plane running across the body parallel to the ground (horizontal). It divides the body or structure into upper and lower portions.

Answer the questions

— Which plane divides the body into anterior and posterior portions?

— Which plane divides the body into upper and lower portions?

— Which plane divides the body into left and right halves?

Chapter 2. Digestive System

Text 1. Oral Cavity

The gastrointestinal tract begins with the oral (buccal) cavity, or mouth. The cheeks form the walls of the mouth cavity, while the lips form the opening to this cavity.

NB! noun: cheek — adjective of Latin origin: buccal

The hard palate forms the anterior portion of the roof of the mouth while the muscular soft palate lies posterior to it and separates the mouth from the pharynx (throat).

The tongue extends across the floor of the oral cavity and is attached by muscles to the mandible (lower jaw bone). It moves food during mastication (chewing) and deglutition (swallowing). The tongue is covered with a series of small projections called papillae which contain cells (taste buds).

NB! singular: papilla — plural: papillae [from Latin]

The gums surround the sockets in which the teeth are found. There are 32 permanent teeth, 16 in each jaw bone. There are: 4 incisors; 2 cuspids, or canines; 4 premolars, or bicuspids; 6 molars.

A tooth consists of a crown, which is above the gum, and a root, which is embedded in an alveolus, or tooth socket.

NB! singular: alveolus — plural: alveoli [from Latin]

The outermost protective layer of the crown is called the enamel, the hardest substance in the body. Underneath the enamel is the main bulk of the tooth, called the dentin. Dentin is composed of bony tissue and is covered by a protective layer of cementum. Below the dentin is a soft, vascular layer in the center of the tooth called the pulp. Within the pulp are blood vessels, connective tissue, nerve endings, lymph vessels.

The three pairs of salivary glands are exocrine glands. They produce saliva, fluid which contains digestive enzymes to chemically break down starches into sugar.

Text 2. Pharynx

Food passes from the mouth to the pharynx. The pharynx is a muscular tube lined with a mucous membrane. It serves as a passageway for air from the nasal cavity to the larynx (voice box), as well as for food going from the mouth to the esophagus. A flap of tissue called the epiglottis covers the opening to the larynx and prevents food from entering the trachea (windpipe) by closing over the air passageway during swallowing.

Text 3. Esophagus. Stomach

The esophagus is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach. It aids in swallowing and moves food along the gastrointestinal tract. Peristalsis is the name of the involuntary, progressive, wavelike contraction of the esophagus and other tubes of the gastrointestinal tract which propel the food through the system. Food passes from the esophagus to the stomach. The stomach is composed of a fundus (upper round part), a body (middle part), and an antrum (lower bulge in the distal part of the stomach). The openings allowing food into and out of the stomach are controlled by rings of muscles called sphincters. The cardiac sphincter relaxes and contracts to move food from the esophagus into the stomach, while the pyloric sphincter allows food to leave the stomach when it has been sufficiently digested. Rugae are the folds in the mucous membrane lining the stomach. The gastric glands which produce enzymes and hydrochloric acid to digest food are located in this gastric mucosa.

NB! From Latin: sing. ruga — plur. rugae

Developing Questions: Something to Think about

— What is the role of the stomach?

— Does the food enter the bloodstream through the stomach?

— What enzyme is needed to convert proteins to smaller substances called peptones?

— What for is hydrochloric acid necessary?

Text 4. Small Intestine

The small intestine, or small bowel, extends from the pyloric sphincter to the first part of the large intestine. It is 20 feet long and has three parts. The duodenum, the first part, receives food from the stomach, bile from the liver and gallbladder, and pancreatic juice from the pancreas. Food is digested in the duodenum and passes in peristaltic waves from the duodenum to the second part, the jejunum, which is about 8 feet long. The jejunum connects with the third section, the ileum, about 11 feet long, which is attached to the large intestine.

In the wall of the small intestine there are millions of tiny projections, called villi.

NB! From Latin: sing. villus — plur. villi

It is through the capillary network of the villi that digested food pass to enter the bloodstream.

Text 5. Large Intestine

The large intestine extends from the ileum to the anus. It is divided into four parts — cecum, colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum. The cecum, or the first part, is a pounch on the right side which is connected to the ileum by the ileocecal sphincter. The vermiform appendix hangs from the cecum. The colon is about 5 feet long and has three divisions: the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon. The sigmoid colon is at the distal end of the descending colon and leads into the rectum. The rectum terminates in the lower opening of the gastrointestinal tract, the anus.

Developing Questions: Something to Think about

— What is the function of the vermiform appendix?

— Which division of the colon passes horizontally to the left toward the spleen?

— In which part of the large intestine is unabsorbed solid material stored?

— What happens with the fluid by-products of digestion, such as water?

Text 6. Liver. Gallbladder. Pancreas

Three accessory organs of the digestive system are liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

The liver, located in the right quadrant of the abdominal cavity, manufactures a thick, yellowish-brown fluid, called bile. Bile is released from the liver and travels down to hepatic duct to the cystic duct.

NB! noun liver — adjective hepatic [from Latin]

The cystic duct leads to the gallbladder, a sac under the liver, which stores bile for later use. After meals, the gallbladder contracts, forcing bile out the cystic duct and into the common bile duct, which joins with the pancreatic duct just before the entrance to the duodenum. The duodenum receives a mixture of bile and pancreatic juice.

The pancreas manufactures and secretes juice which passes through the pancreatic duct into the duodenum, where it helps to break down all types of foods. Special cells in the pancreas produce a hormone called insulin.

Developing Questions: Something to Think about

— Does the food pass through the accessory organs of the digestive system?

— What is bilirubin? [clues: bile pigment: waste product]

— How does bile act? [clues: emulsifier; detergent-like effect]

— How can the liver keep the amount of sugar in the blood at a normal level? [clues: glycogenesis; glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis]

— What proteins does the liver manufacture?

— How does the liver help to fight diseases?

— What is urea? [clues: waste product; protein breakdown]

— What is portal system [=portal circulation]?

— Does the pancreas function as an exocrine or endocrine organ?

— What are lipase and amylase?

— What role does insulin play in the body? [clue: utilization of sugar]

Pay attention to Combining Forms of Greek Origin

— crine — excretion

endo- — inner

exo- — outer

— genesis — formation

geno- — formation; origin

glyco- [=gluco-] — sugar; glucose

neo- — new

Task. Build medical terms, using combining forms

pertaining to under the tongue

pertaining to the cheek

study of the stomach and intestines

Chapter 3. Urinary System

Text 1. Anatomy of the Major Organs

The organs of the urinary system are:

1. Two kidneys — bean-shaped, fist-sized organs situated behind the abdominal cavity on either side of the vertebral column in the lumbar region.

The kidneys are embedded in a cushion of adipose tissue and surrounded by fibrous connective tissue for protection.

The kidneys consist of an outer cortex region and an inner medulla region. The aorta brings waste-filled blood from the heart to the kidneys via short, thick renal arteries which branch into both kidneys.

NB! noun: kidney — adjective: renal (from Latin)

The filtration of waste materials from the blood to form urine takes place within the microscopic tubules of the kidney. The renal vein carries blood away from the kidneys to larger veins and then back to the heart.

2. Two ureters — muscular tubes lined with mucous membrane. They convey urine in peristaltic waves from the kidney to the urinary bladder.

3. Urinary bladder — hollow, muscular, distensible sac in the pelvic cavity. It serves as a temporary reservoir for urine.

4. Urethra — membranous tube through which urine is discharged from the urinary bladder. The process of expelling urine through the urethra is called micturition. The external opening of the urethra is called the urethral or urinary meatus.

Task. Compare Latin anatomical terms with English ones

ren; regio; textura; cortex; medulla; aorta; arteria; vena; arteria renalis; vena renalis; ureter; urethra; tuba muscularis; membrana mucosa; urina; vesica urinaria; meatus urinarius

Text 2. How the Kidneys Produce Urine

Blood is led to the kidneys by way of the renal arteries. Each renal artery branches into many small arteries called arterioles. Each arteriole breaks up into a mass of tiny, coiled, intertwined capillaries shaped like a little ball and called glomerulus.

NB! singular: glomerulus — plural: glomeruli (from Latin)

There are thousands of glomeruli in the cortex region of each kidney.

The process of forming urine begins in the glomerulus as urea and other wastes filter out from the glomerulus into a cuplike structure — Bowman’s capsule which encloses each glomerulus. At this point, the kidney has filtered out of the blood not only the waste product urea, but also valuable substances, such as sugar, salts and water. The kidney must reabsorb into the bloodstream all the materials the body need. The process of reabsorption takes place through the walls of the tubules which lead from each Bowman’s capsule. These tubules are renal tubules.

The distal renal tubules, carrying urine, merge to form the renal pelvis, a space that fills most of the medulla of the kidney. Cuplike divisions of the renal pelvis which receive urine from the tubules are called calyces.

The renal pelvis narrows into the ureter which carries the urine to the bladder where the urine is temporarily stored. The exit area of the bladder to the urethra is closed by sphincters which do not permit urine to leave the bladder.

NB! singular: calyx — plural: calyces (from Latin)

Task. Compare Latin anatomical terms with English ones:

tubuli renales distales; pelvis renalis; calyces; musculus sphincter

Developing Questions: Something to Think about

— What is rennin? What is its role? [clues: kidney, produce, substance, stimulate, contraction, arterioles, increased blood pressure, normal blood flow]

— What wastes do kidneys filter out? [clues: urea, creatinine, uric acid]

— Why can’t proteins pass through the walls of the glomerulus? [clues: large molecules]

— What is composition of urine? [clues: 95% water; 5% urea, creatinine, acids, salts, bile pigments]

— What causes the desire to urinate? [clues: bladder; fill up; muscular contraction; walls of the bladder; pressure; the base of the urethra]

Chapter 4. Nervous System

Text 1. General Structure of the Nervous System

The nervous system can be classified into two major divisions: the central nervous system [CNS] and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

In addition to the spinal and cranial nerves, the peripheral nervous system consists of a large group of nerves of the autonomic nervous system. These nerves are called efferent, since they carry impulses away from the central nervous system.

Some of the autonomic nerves are called sympathetic nerves and others are called parasympathetic nerves.

Ganglia, which are collections of nerve tissue outside the brain and spinal glands, and plexuses, which are larger networks of nerves, are prevalent in the autonomic nervous system.

NB! sing. ganglion — plur. ganglia [from Latin]

NB! sing. plexus — plur. plexuses [from Latin]

Developing Questions: Something to Think about

— What do cranial nerves carry impulses between?

— What do spinal nerves carry messages between?

— What nerves carry impulses from the CNS to the glands, heart, blood vessels, and the involuntary muscles?

— What nerves are involved with sensations of smell, taste, sight, hearing?

— What nerves are involved with muscle movements?

— What nerves stimulate the body in times of stress and crisis, i.e. increase heart rate and blood pressure, dilate airways, stimulate the adrenal glands?

— What nerves normally act as a balance for the sympathetic nerves?

Task. Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones

systema nervosum; encephalon; medulla spinalis; nervus; nervi spinales; nervi craniales

Text 2. Neurons and Nerves

A neuron is an individual nerve cell, a microscopic structure. Impulses are passed along the parts of a nerve cell in a definite manner and direction.

A stimulus begins a wave of excitability in the receptive branching fibers of the neuron which are called dendrites.

NB! sing. stimulus — plur. stimuli [from Latin]

The nervous impulse wave, traveling in only one direction, next reaches the cell body. Extending from the cell body is the axon which carries the impulse away from the cell body. Axons may be covered with a fatty tissue sheath called a myelin sheath.

The nervous impulse passes through the axon to leave the cell via the terminal end fibers of the neuron. The space where the nervous impulse jumps from one neuron to another is called the synapse.

Peripheral nerves which carry impulses to the brain and spinal cord from stimulus receptors are called afferent nerves; those which carry impulses from the CNS to organs which produce responses are called efferent nerves.

The interstitial tissue of the nervous system consists of cells called neuroglia. These cells are supportive and connective in function, as well as phagocytic. There are three types of neuroglial cells: astrocytes, microglia, oligodendroglia.

Task. 1. Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:

nervi afferentes; nervi efferentes

2. Form the singular number form from the following plural nouns:

neuroglia; astroglia; microglia; oligodendroglia

Developing Questions: Something to Think about

— Why are some parts of the spinal cord, the brain, and most peripheral nerves called white matter? [clues: myelin sheath; white appearance]

— What is the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord referrred to as gray? [clues: collections of cell bodies and dendrites; gray appearance; myelin sheath; not to cover]

— Is a neuron a microscopic structure or a macroscopic one?

— Is a nerve able to be seen with the naked eye?

— What stimulus receptors do you know?

— What organs which produce responses do you know?

— Do neuroglial cells transmit impulses?

— Which neuroglial cells are starlike?

— Which neuroglial cells are very small?

— Find out what is the function of each of the neuroglial cell type. [clues: transporting; phagocytes; function is unknown]

Text 3. The Brain

The brain is the primary center for regulating and coordinating body activities. It has many different parts, all of which control different aspects of body functions.

The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum. The outer nervous tissue of the cerebrum, known as the cerebral cortex, is arranged in folds to form elevated portions known as convolutions [also called gyri] and depressions or grooves known as fissures [also called sulci].

The cerebrum has many functions. All thought, judgment, memory, association, and discrimination take place within it.