Бесплатный фрагмент - 30 Must-Read Books for Psychologists

UNIT 1

The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud (1900)

Key Ideas:

Dreams are the «royal road to the unconscious» and provide a window into repressed and hidden thoughts and desires.
Dreams have two layers: the manifest content (surface meaning) and the latent content (underlying, unconscious message).
Dream symbols have specific meanings that can be discovered through analysis.
Dreams are subject to censorship from the conscious mind to protect us from disturbing or anxiety-provoking thoughts.
Dreams serve a wish-fulfilling function, allowing us to experience forbidden desires or fears in a safe and symbolic manner.

One Main Idea in Detail: Dream Symbolism

Freud believed that dreams use symbols to represent unconscious thoughts and desires. These symbols can be objects, people, animals, or even abstract concepts. For example, a falling dream may symbolize anxiety or a desire for freedom, while a flying dream may symbolize a desire for escape or liberation. Freud developed a comprehensive list of dream symbols and their meanings, which he used to interpret his patients’ dreams.

Examples from Freud’s List of Dream Symbols and Their Meanings:

Falling: Anxiety, desire for freedom
Flying: Escape, liberation
Water: Emotions, the unconscious
Fire: Passion, destruction
House: Self, body
Snake: Penis, sexuality
Teeth: Aggression, castration anxiety
Money: Power, security
Car: Control, freedom
Food: Nurturance, love
Animals: Instincts, primitive desires
Death: Change, transformation

Best Quotes from the Book:

«The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind.»
«Dreams are the guardians of sleep.»
«The dream is a rebus that must be deciphered.»
«Every dream symbol has a definite meaning which can be discovered through analysis.»
«The dream-work is subject to a censorship which allows only distorted and disguised expressions of the latent dream-thoughts to reach consciousness.»
«Dreams serve a wish-fulfilling function, allowing us to experience forbidden desires or fears in a safe and symbolic manner.»
«The interpretation of dreams is an art, not a science.»

Criticism:

Freud’s theory of dreams has been criticized for its lack of scientific evidence, reliance on subjective interpretation, and limited applicability to all types of dreams. Some critics argue that dream interpretation is too vague and unreliable to be a valid method of psychological analysis.

Influence:

The Interpretation of Dreams has had a profound impact on the field of psychology and beyond. It laid the foundation for psychoanalysis and dream interpretation and inspired numerous theories and techniques in the field of mental health. It has also influenced literature, art, and popular culture. Freud’s ideas about dreams continue to be debated and discussed today, and his work remains a seminal contribution to our understanding of the human mind.

Interesting Facts About the Book:

Freud initially struggled to publish the book: Many publishers rejected The Interpretation of Dreams due to its controversial content and unconventional ideas.
It was Freud’s most important work: Freud himself considered The Interpretation of Dreams to be his most important and groundbreaking work.
It was initially met with skepticism: The book was initially met with skepticism and criticism from both the scientific community and the general public.
It has been translated into more than 30 languages: The Interpretation of Dreams has been translated into more than 30 languages and has sold millions of copies worldwide.
It is still studied and debated today: Freud’s theory of dreams continues to be studied and debated by psychologists and scholars today.

WORDLIST

royal road — королевский путь
repressed and hidden thoughts — подавленные и скрытые мысли
layers — слои
manifest content — явное содержание
latent content — скрытое содержание
anxiety-provoking thoughts — вызывающие беспокойство мысли
wish-fulfilling function — функция исполнения желаний
forbidden desires — запретные желания
desire for freedom — стремление к свободе
liberation — освобождение
a rebus that must be deciphered — ребус, который нужно расшифровать
distorted and disguised expressions — искажённые и замаскированные выражения
lack of scientific evidence — отсутствие научных доказательств
limited applicability — ограниченная применимость
vague — расплывчатый
valid method of psychological analysis — достоверный метод психологического анализа
unconventional ideas — нетрадиционные идеи
groundbreaking work — новаторская работа

Exercise 1.

Fill in the gaps with some words or phrases from the wordlist

1. Dreams are the __________ to the unconscious mind.
2. Dreams have two __________: the manifest content and the latent content.
3. The _____________ is the surface meaning of the dream.
4. The __________ is the underlying message of the dream.
5. Dreams can contain __________ that represent unconscious thoughts and desires.
6. Dreams serve a __________ by allowing us to experience forbidden desires in a safe way.
7. Freud’s theory of dreams has been criticized for its __________ and __________ applicability.
8. Some critics argue that dream interpretation is too __________ to be a valid method of psychological analysis.
9. Despite these criticisms, The Interpretation of Dreams remains a __________ work in the field of psychology.

Exercise 2

Are these statements TRUE or FALSE?

1. Freud believed that dreams are the «royal road» to the unconscious mind.
2. The latent content of a dream is its surface meaning.
3. Dream symbols can have specific meanings that can be discovered through analysis.
4. Freud’s theory of dreams has been universally accepted by the scientific community.
5. Dreams serve no purpose and are simply random brain activity.
6. The Interpretation of Dreams was Freud’s first published work.
7. Freud believed that dreams are always wish-fulfilling.
8. Some critics argue that dream interpretation is too vague to be a valid method of psychological analysis.
9. Dreams can help us to understand our repressed and hidden thoughts.
10. Freud’s ideas about dreams continue to be debated and discussed today.

UNIT 2

The Principles of Psychology by William James (1890)

Key Ideas:

Consciousness is a continuous stream of thought. James argued that consciousness is not a series of discrete mental states, but rather a continuous flow of experience. This stream of consciousness includes everything from our thoughts and feelings to our sensations and memories.

Habits are formed through association and are essential for social stability. James believed that habits are formed when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together. Over time, the association between the stimuli becomes so strong that one stimulus can trigger the other, even in the absence of the original stimulus. Habits are essential for social stability because they allow us to perform complex tasks without having to think about every step.

The self is a collection of experiences, not a fixed entity. James rejected the traditional view of the self as a fixed, unchanging entity. Instead, he argued that the self is a collection of our experiences, both past and present. This means that our self is constantly changing and evolving as we have new experiences.

Emotions are physiological responses to stimuli, not cognitive judgments. James’ theory of emotion, known as the James-Lange theory, challenged the traditional view that emotions are caused by cognitive judgments. Instead, James argued that emotions are simply physiological responses to stimuli. This means that we do not first think about something and then feel an emotion; rather, we feel an emotion and then think about it.

Instinct plays a significant role in human behavior. James believed that instinct, or innate behavior patterns, plays a significant role in human behavior. He argued that instincts are not simply fixed, unchangeable behaviors, but rather flexible patterns that can be modified by experience. Instincts provide us with a foundation for learning and adaptation, and they help us to survive and thrive in our environment.

Best Quotes:

«The stream of thought, which constitutes our conscious self, is sensibly continuous.»
«My thesis is that the essence of all consciousness is attention.»
«Habit is the flywheel of society, its most precious conservative agent.»
«Belief creates the fact.»

Criticism:

Some critics argue that James’ focus on observable behavior neglected the importance of internal mental processes.
His theory of emotion has been criticized for oversimplifying the complex relationship between physiology and psychology.

Influence:

«The Principles of Psychology» revolutionized the field of psychology, establishing it as an empirical science.
It introduced key concepts such as the stream of consciousness, habit, and the self.
Its pragmatic approach influenced the development of behaviorism and functionalism.

Interesting Facts:

James initially intended to write a short summary of psychology, but his work grew into a two-volume tome.
The book was praised for its clear and engaging writing style, which made complex psychological concepts accessible to a general audience.
James drew inspiration from both scientific research and his own personal experiences.

WORDLIST:

continuous stream of thought — непрерывный поток мыслей
discrete mental states — дискретные психические состояния
continuous flow of experience — непрерывный поток опыта
habits — привычки
two stimuli are repeatedly paired together — два стимула неоднократно сопряжены вместе
complex tasks — сложные задачи
fixed, unchanging entity — фиксированная, неизменная сущность
are caused by cognitive judgments — вызваны когнитивными суждениями
innate behavior patterns — врожденные модели поведения
thrive — процветать
the essence of all consciousness — сущность всего сознания
flywheel of society — маховик общества
precious — драгоценный
observable behavior — наблюдаемое поведение
neglect — пренебрегать
oversimplifying — чрезмерное упрощение
engaging writing style — увлекательный стиль письма
accessible to a general audience — доступный для широкой аудитории

Exercise 3

Fill in the gaps with some words or phrases from the wordlist.

1. Consciousness is a ______________ of experience.
2. Habits are formed when ______________.
3. James argued that emotions ______________.
4. James believed that the self is not a ______________.
5. James’ writing style was ______________.
6. ______________ play a significant role in human behavior.
7. James’ book was ______________ to a general audience.
8. Critics argue that James ______________ the importance of internal mental processes.
9. James’ theory of emotion has been criticized for ______________ the relationship between physiology and psychology.

UNIT 3

The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People by Stephen Covey (1989)

About the Book

This self-help classic outlines seven fundamental principles for personal and professional effectiveness.

The 7 Habits

Be Proactive: Take responsibility for your choices and actions, focusing on the things you can control.
Begin with the End in Mind: Establish clear goals and align your actions with them.
Put First Things First: Prioritize tasks based on importance and urgency, focusing on the most impactful activities.
Think Win-Win: Seek mutually beneficial solutions, considering the needs and interests of others.
Seek First to Understand, Then to Be Understood: Listen actively to others to truly comprehend their perspectives before sharing your own.
Synergize: Combine different perspectives and ideas to create groundbreaking solutions.
Sharpen the Saw: Continuously invest in personal and professional development to enhance your abilities.

Best Quotes

«The only person you are destined to become is the person you decide to be.»
«Sow a thought, reap an action; sow an action, reap a habit; sow a habit, reap a character; sow a character, reap a destiny.»
«Seek to understand, then to be understood.»
«Interdependence is a higher value than independence.»
«The main thing is to keep the main thing the main thing.»

Criticism

While widely acclaimed, the book has received some criticism:

Oversimplification: Critics argue that the habits are presented as a formulaic solution to complex personal challenges.
Idealistic: Some find the principles overly optimistic and difficult to implement in real-world situations.
Repetitiveness: The book’s emphasis on the seven habits can lead to redundancy and a lack of depth in discussing each one.

Influence

Despite the criticism, «The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People» has had a significant impact:

It has sold over 40 million copies worldwide.
It has been translated into over 40 languages.
It has been used as a training and leadership development tool in organizations and educational institutions.

Interesting Facts

The book was originally titled «The 7 Habits of 10% of the People Who Get Results.»
Covey’s inspiration for the book came from his studies of successful individuals in various fields.
The book has been listed on Fortune’s 100 Best Business Books of All Time.

WORDLIST:

personal and professional effectiveness — личная и профессиональная эффективность
take responsibility — брать на себя ответственность
establish clear goals — ставить четкие цели
align — согласовывать
importance and urgency — важность и срочность
the most impactful activities — наиболее важные действия
seek — искать
mutually beneficial solutions — взаимовыгодные решения
groundbreaking solutions — новаторские решения
sharpen the saw — оттачивать пилу
enhance your abilities — повышать свои способности
sow, reap — посей, пожнёшь
oversimplification — чрезмерное упрощение
formulaic solution — шаблонное решение
overly optimistic — чрезмерно оптимистичный
difficult to implement — трудно реализуемый
repetitiveness — повторяемость
redundancy — избыточность
lack of depth — недостаток глубины
despite the criticism — несмотря на критику
training and leadership development tool — инструмент для обучения и развития лидерских качеств

Exercise 4

Are these statements TRUE or FALSE?

1. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People is a self-help book.
2. The book outlines eight habits for personal and professional effectiveness.
3. The first habit is «Be Proactive.»
4. The book recommends prioritizing tasks based on urgency alone.
5. The fourth habit is «Think Win-Win.»
6. The book suggests that it is more important to be understood than to understand others.
7. The seventh habit is «Sharpen the Saw.»
8. The book has sold less than 10 million copies worldwide.
9. The book has been translated into over 40 languages.
10. The book has had no significant impact on the business world.

UNIT 4

The Ego and the Id by Sigmund Freud (1923)

Key Ideas:

1. The Three-Part Model of the Psyche:

Freud proposed that the human psyche is divided into three distinct structures:

Id: The Id is the primal, instinctual part of the personality. It is driven by the pleasure principle, seeking instant gratification of basic needs and desires. The Id operates on the primary process, which is illogical and irrational.
Ego: The Ego is the mediator between the Id and the external world. It balances the demands of the Id with the constraints of reality and the moral code. The Ego operates on the secondary process, which is logical and rational.
Superego: The Superego is the moral conscience, internalizing societal values and ethical principles. It strives for perfection and punishes the Ego for transgressions.

2. The Ego as Mediator:

Freud’s most significant contribution in this book is his detailed exploration of the Ego’s role as a mediator between the Id and Superego. The Ego constantly juggles the demands of the Id’s pleasure-seeking impulses with the Superego’s moral code. It must find ways to satisfy the Id’s desires while also adhering to the Superego’s moral standards. This balancing act can lead to anxiety and conflict, as the Ego struggles to maintain equilibrium.

3. Defense Mechanisms:

When the Ego is unable to resolve the conflict between the Id and Superego, it employs defense mechanisms to protect itself from anxiety. These defense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes that distort or block threatening thoughts and feelings. Some common defense mechanisms include:

Repression: Unconsciously burying threatening thoughts and feelings.
Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts and feelings to others.
Rationalization: Providing logical explanations for irrational behavior.

4. The Oedipus Complex:

Freud believed that the Oedipus complex plays a crucial role in the development of the Superego. The Oedipus complex is a boy’s unconscious desire to possess his mother and kill his father, who he sees as a rival for his mother’s affections. This complex is eventually resolved through identification with the father, leading to the formation of the Superego.

5. The Death Drive:

Freud also introduced the concept of the death drive in this book. The death drive is an unconscious force that compels individuals towards self-destruction and aggression. Freud believed that the death drive is in constant conflict with the life instincts (Eros).

Best Quotes from the Book:

«The ego is… the mediator between the id and the external world.»
«The id knows no values, no good or evil, no morality.»
«The superego… is the heir to the Oedipus complex.»

Criticism:

Freud’s theory is based largely on clinical observations rather than empirical evidence.
His overemphasis on the role of childhood experience has been challenged by later research.
The theory is reductionist, attributing all behavior to unconscious drives.

Influence:

«The Ego and the Id» had a profound impact on psychology, shaping the field of psychoanalytic theory and therapy. It introduced the concept of three distinct psychic structures (Id, Ego, Superego), which became foundational in understanding human behavior.

Interesting Facts:

The book was originally published in German as «Das Ich und das Es.»
Freud wrote it at the age of 67, after suffering from throat cancer.
The three-part model of the psyche is often represented as three overlapping circles: Id, Ego, and Superego.

WORDLIST:

human psyche — человеческая психика
primal, instinctual part of the personality — изначальная, инстинктивная часть личности
pleasure principle — принцип удовольствия
instant gratification — мгновенное удовлетворение
basic needs and desires — основные потребности и желания
external world — внешний мир
constraints of reality and the moral code — ограничения реальности и морального кодекса
moral conscience — моральная совесть
internalizing societal values — усвоение общественных ценностей
transgressions — нарушения
pleasure-seeking impulses — стремления к получению удовольствия
maintain equilibrium — сохранять равновесие
unconscious mental processes — бессознательные психические процессы
distort or block threatening thoughts — искажать или блокировать угрожающие мысли
unacceptable thoughts and feelings — неприемлемые мысли и чувства
Repression — Вытеснение
Projection — Проекция
Rationalization — Рационализация
possess — обладать
rival for his mother’s affections — соперник за привязанность матери
self-destruction and aggression — саморазрушение и агрессия
heir — наследник

Exercise 5

Fill in the gaps with some words or phrases from the wordlist.

1. The Id is the __________, driven by the pleasure principle.
2. The Ego balances the demands of the Id with the __________.
3. The Superego is the __________, internalizing societal values.
4. Defense mechanisms are __________, which protect the Ego from anxiety.
5. Repression is the unconscious burying of __________.
6. Projection is the attribution of one’s own __________ to others.
7. The Oedipus complex is a boy’s unconscious desire to __________ his mother.

UNIT 5

Thinking, Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman (2011)

Key Ideas:

System 1 and System 2 Thinking

System 1:
Fast and automatic
Intuitive and emotional
Operates without conscious effort
Relies on heuristics (mental shortcuts) and biases
System 2:
Slow and deliberate
Rational and logical
Requires conscious effort
Used for complex tasks and decision-making

Cognitive Biases

Framing Effects: People’s decisions can be influenced by the way information is presented, even if the underlying facts are the same.
Confirmation Bias: People tend to seek out and interpret information that confirms their existing beliefs.
Availability Heuristic: People tend to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily they can recall examples of it.

Prospect Theory

People evaluate gains and losses differently, with losses having a disproportionately greater impact on their decision-making.
This asymmetry leads to risk aversion for gains and risk seeking for losses.

Anchoring Effect

People tend to rely too heavily on the first piece of information they receive when making judgments.
This can lead to biased estimates and decisions.

Nudge Theory

Small, subtle interventions can influence people’s decisions without restricting their freedom of choice.
Nudges can be used to promote desirable behaviors, such as saving for retirement or eating healthier foods.

Examples

System 1: Driving a car on a familiar route, making a snap judgment about someone’s trustworthiness.
System 2: Solving a complex math problem, making a major financial decision.
Cognitive Bias: Someone who is afraid of flying might overestimate the likelihood of a plane crash because they can easily recall recent news stories about plane crashes.
Prospect Theory: A person might be more reluctant to sell a stock that has lost value than to sell a stock that has gained value, even if the potential gain or loss is the same.
Anchoring Effect: A real estate agent might anchor the price of a house at a high value, which can influence potential buyers’ perceptions of its worth.
Nudge: A government might send out reminders to citizens about the importance of saving for retirement, which can encourage them to contribute more to their retirement accounts.

Best Quotes

«In the end, it is not the magnitude of our knowledge but the depth of our wisdom that will shape our decisions.»
«System 1 is like an impulsive child who acts without thinking, while System 2 is like a cautious adult who weighs the pros and cons.»
«Humans are an anomaly in the animal kingdom. We have the capacity to think about our thinking.»
«Our ability to construct reality is stronger than our ability to discover reality.»

Criticism

Some critics argue that Kahneman oversimplifies the complexity of human decision-making.
Others question the generalizability of his findings across different cultures and contexts.
The book has been criticized for focusing too much on individual biases and not enough on the role of social and environmental factors in decision-making.

Influence

Nobel Prize: Kahneman was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2002 for his work on behavioral economics.
Popularization of Behavioral Economics: The book has helped popularize the field of behavioral economics, which integrates insights from psychology into economic models.
Applications in Policymaking: nudge theory has been adopted by governments and organizations to design policies that encourage desirable behaviors.

Interesting Facts

The book was translated into over 40 languages.
It has sold over 5 million copies worldwide.
Kahneman conducted many of his famous experiments while working as a psychologist at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

WORDLIST:

without conscious effort — без сознательных усилий
heuristics — эвристика
mental shortcuts — ментальные ярлыки
biases — предубеждения
slow and deliberate — медленное и обдуманное
underlying facts — лежащие в основе факты
cognitive biases — когнитивные искажения
confirmation bias — склонность к подтверждению
interpret information — интерпретировать информацию
availability heuristic — эвристика доступности
gains and losses — выигрыши и потери
nudge theory — теория подталкивания
subtle interventions — тонкие вмешательства
without restricting their freedom of choice — не ограничивая их свободу выбора
trustworthiness — надежность
snap judgment — мгновенное суждение
reluctant — нерешительный
importance of saving for retirement — важность сбережений на пенсию
magnitude — величина
cautious adult who weighs the pros and cons — осторожный взрослый, который взвешивает все «за» и «против»
complexity — сложность
which integrates insights from psychology into economic models — которая интегрирует идеи из психологии в экономические модели
applications in policymaking — применение в политике

Exercise 6

Are these statements TRUE or FALSE?

1. System 1 thinking is slow and deliberate.
2. Cognitive biases can lead to errors in judgment.
3. Prospect theory suggests that people evaluate gains and losses equally.
4. The anchoring effect occurs when people rely too heavily on the first piece of information they receive.
5. Nudge theory can be used to restrict people’s freedom of choice.
6. «Thinking, Fast and Slow» was written by Richard Thaler.
7. The book has been translated into over 40 languages.
8. Kahneman was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for his work on behavioral economics.

UNIT 6

The Social Animal by Elliot Aronson (1972)

Key Ideas:

Attribution Theory:

People are motivated to understand the causes of their own and others’ behavior.
Attribution theory describes how people make these attributions, which can be either internal (due to personal factors) or external (due to situational factors).
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate internal attributions and underestimate external attributions when explaining others’ behavior.
Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors and negative outcomes to external factors when explaining our own behavior.

Groupthink:

Groupthink is a phenomenon that occurs when a group of people are highly cohesive and have a strong desire for consensus.
This can lead to the suppression of dissenting opinions and a lack of critical thinking.
Groupthink can have negative consequences, such as poor decision-making and unethical behavior.

Cognitive Dissonance:

Cognitive dissonance is the uncomfortable state that people experience when they hold two or more contradictory beliefs.
This discomfort motivates people to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes or behaviors.
For example, if someone smokes but knows that smoking is bad for their health, they may experience cognitive dissonance. They may reduce this dissonance by quitting smoking or by rationalizing their behavior (e.g., «I only smoke a few cigarettes a day»).

Discrimination:

Discrimination is a form of prejudice that involves treating someone negatively based on their perceived membership in a category.
Discrimination can be overt (e.g., refusing to hire someone because of their race) or subtle (e.g., microaggressions).
Discrimination can have negative consequences for both the individual and society.

Other Key Ideas:

Social influence: How people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.
Conformity: The tendency to change one’s behavior or beliefs in order to fit in with a group.
Obedience: The tendency to follow the orders of an authority figure, even when those orders are unethical.
Aggression: The intentional infliction of harm on another person.
Altruism: The selfless concern for the welfare of others.

Best Quotes:

«Social psychology is the study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context.»
«Attribution theory is concerned with how people explain the causes of their own and others’ behavior.»
«Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable state that motivates people to change their attitudes or behaviors.»
«Discrimination is a serious problem that can have negative consequences for both the individual and society.»

Criticism:

Some critics argue that Aronson’s focus on individual behavior ignores the role of social structures and power dynamics.
Others criticize his use of laboratory experiments, claiming they fail to capture the complexity of real-world social interactions.

Influence:

The Social Animal has had a profound influence on the field of social psychology. It is one of the most widely cited books in the discipline.
Aronson’s research on attribution theory, groupthink, and self-serving bias has shaped our understanding of human behavior.
The book has also been widely used as a textbook and has influenced generations of social psychologists.

Interesting Facts:

The Social Animal was one of the first textbooks to cover the entire field of social psychology.
Aronson conducted a classic experiment on groupthink during a President Kennedy assassination simulation.
Aronson was an early advocate for the use of social psychology to address social problems such as prejudice and discrimination.

WORDLIST:

attribution theory — теория атрибуции
tendency to overestimate — тенденция переоценивать
underestimate — недооценивать
self-serving bias — эгоцентрическое смещение
negative outcomes — негативные результаты
highly cohesive — сплочённый
strong desire for consensus — сильное стремление к консенсусу
suppression of dissenting opinions — подавление инакомыслия
negative consequences — негативные последствия
cognitive dissonance — когнитивный диссонанс
when they hold two or more contradictory beliefs — когда они придерживаются двух или более противоречивых убеждений
form of prejudice — форма предубеждения
overt — открытый
subtle — тонкий
conformity — конформизм
obedience — послушание
intentional infliction of harm — преднамеренное причинение вреда
selfless concern — бескорыстная забота
fail to capture the complexity — не могут уловить сложность
profound influence — глубокое влияние
entire field of social psychology — вся область социальной психологии
assassination simulation — имитация убийства

Exercise 7

Fill in the gaps with the correct words or phrases from the list below:

profound influence
conformity
self-serving bias
form of prejudice
entire field
suppression of dissenting opinions
cognitive dissonance

1. Elliot Aronson’s book The Social Animal has had a __________ on the field of social psychology.
2. __________ is the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors and negative outcomes to external factors when explaining our own behavior.
3. __________ is a state of discomfort that people experience when they hold two or more contradictory beliefs.
4. Discrimination is a __________ that involves treating someone negatively based on their perceived membership in a category.
5. __________ is the tendency to change one’s behavior or beliefs in order to fit in with a group.
6. __________ is the suppression of opinions that differ from the majority view within a group.
7. Aronson’s book covers the __________ of social psychology, from attribution theory to aggression.

UNIT 7

The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil by Philip Zimbardo (2007)

Key Ideas:

Evil is not a fixed trait but a fluid state. Anyone can be capable of evil acts under the right circumstances.
Situational factors play a powerful role in shaping behavior. Obedience to authority, group conformity, and dehumanization can all lead to unethical conduct.
Good people can be easily swayed to commit evil acts. Even those who would normally act morally can be influenced by situational pressures.
The path to evil is often paved with good intentions. People may rationalize their evil actions as being for a greater good or as a necessary response to a threatening situation.
It is important to be aware of the situational factors that can lead to evil behavior. By understanding these factors, we can take steps to mitigate their influence.
Promoting ethical conduct in institutions is crucial. Institutions should create clear ethical guidelines, provide training on ethical decision-making, and foster a culture of accountability.
Individuals have a responsibility to resist evil. Even in difficult situations, it is important to maintain one’s moral compass and to speak out against injustice.

Zimbardo argues that the key to preventing evil is to create social and institutional conditions that promote ethical behavior and to empower individuals to resist situational pressures that may lead them to act immorally.

Best Quotes:

«Evil is an extreme but understandable reaction to situations that make it psychologically difficult to resist antisocial behaviors.»
«The greatest danger is that when we see evil, we comfort ourselves with the thought that we are not that kind of person. But it is a false comfort.»
«The path to evil is paved with good intentions.»

Criticism:

Some critics argue that Zimbardo oversimplifies the causes of evil and ignores individual responsibility.
Others question the ethical implications of the Stanford Prison Experiment, which formed the basis for the book’s findings.

Influence:

«The Lucifer Effect» has significantly influenced the fields of psychology, criminology, and social policy. It has led to a greater understanding of how situational factors can influence behavior and the importance of promoting ethical conduct in institutions.

Interesting Facts:

The book’s title refers to the biblical figure Lucifer, an angel who fell from grace and became known as the Devil.
Zimbardo conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment in 1971, which demonstrated how quickly ordinary college students became abusive and unethical when assigned to play the roles of prisoners and guards.
The book has been translated into over 20 languages and sold over 1 million copies worldwide.

WORDLIST:

capable — способный
circumstances — обстоятельства
clear ethical guidelines — четкие этические принципы
comfort ourselves with the thought — утешаем себя мыслью
ethical conduct — этическое поведение
ethical implications — этические последствия
empower individuals — наделить полномочиями отдельных лиц
evil acts — злые поступки
fluid state — текучее состояние
foster a culture of accountability — воспитывать культуру ответственности
group conformity — групповое единообразие
mitigate their influence — смягчить их влияние
necessary response — необходимый ответ
obedience to authority — повиновение авторитету
path — путь
paved with good intentions — вымощенный благими намерениями
resist evil — противостоять злу
responsibility — ответственность
situational pressures — ситуативное давление
speak out against injustice — высказываться против несправедливости
take steps — предпринимать шаги
threatening situation — угрожающая ситуация
unethical conduct — неэтичное поведение
who fell from grace — кто пал с небес
can be easily swayed — может быть легко склонен

Exercise 8

Fill in the gaps with the correct words or phrases from the list below:

capable
circumstances
evil acts
fluid state
paved
responsibility
resist
can be easily swayed

1. Anyone can be ________ of ________ under the right ________.
2. The path to evil is often ________ with good intentions.
3. Evil is not a fixed trait but a ________ that anyone can enter.
4. Good people ________ to commit evil acts when placed in certain psychological conditions.
5. Individuals have a ________ to ________ evil.

UNIT 8

Beyond the Pleasure Principle by Sigmund Freud (1920)

Key Ideas:

1. Pleasure Principle and Reality Principle:

Humans are driven by a desire for pleasure and avoidance of pain (pleasure principle).

However, reality often necessitates the postponement or moderation of pleasure seeking (reality principle).

2. Death Drive:

In addition to the pleasure principle, there is a fundamental drive toward self-destruction, aggression, and the return to an inorganic state (death drive).

The death drive is not conscious and operates alongside the life instincts (Eros).

3. Repetition Compulsion:

Individuals unconsciously repeat traumatic or painful experiences in an attempt to master them.

This repetition compulsion is driven by the death drive’s desire to return to a prior state of equilibrium.

4. Nirvana Principle:

The ultimate goal of the death drive is to return to an inorganic state of tranquility and nothingness (nirvana principle).

This state is characterized by the absence of tension and conflict.

5. Beyond the Pleasure Principle:

The human psyche is governed by forces that go beyond the pursuit of pleasure.

The death drive and repetition compulsion are examples of these forces that shape human behavior and experience.

6. Primal Conflict:

The conflict between the life instincts (Eros) and the death drive is a primal conflict that underlies all human behavior.

This conflict manifests itself in various forms, such as aggression, self-destructiveness, and the pursuit of pleasure.

7. Civilization and the Death Drive:

Freud argued that civilization is built on the repression of the death drive.

However, this repression is never complete, and the death drive can find expression in destructive and violent tendencies within society.

Best Quotes:

«The course of events in life is directed by two opposing forces, the striving for pleasure and the striving for a goal.»

«Every instinct is a conservative force since it strives for the preservation of earlier states.»

«The aim of life is death.»

Criticism:

Lack of Empirical Evidence: Freud’s theories were based primarily on clinical observations and lacked empirical support.

Deterministic View of Human Nature: Freud’s focus on biological and psychological determinism limited his view of human agency and freedom.

Pessimistic Outlook: The death drive concept has been criticized for its pessimistic view of human nature.

Influence:

Psychoanalytic Theory: «Beyond the Pleasure Principle» is a foundational text in psychoanalytic theory, influencing generations of therapists.

Other Fields: Freud’s ideas have influenced fields such as anthropology, sociology, and literature.

Interesting Facts:

Freud’s daughter, Anna, famously asked him, «Father, why do you write such difficult books?»

The book was originally titled «A Short Account of the Death Drive.»

The concept of the death drive remains controversial and has been subject to much debate.

WORDLIST:

are driven by a desire — движимы желанием

avoidance of pain — избегание боли

reality often necessitates — реальность часто требует

postponement or moderation of pleasure seeking — отсрочка или умеренность в получении удовольствия

self-destruction — саморазрушение

inorganic state — неорганическое состояние

attempt to master them — попытка овладеть ими

prior state of equilibrium — предыдущее состояние равновесия

tranquility and nothingness — покой и ничто

pursuit of pleasure — стремление к удовольствию

repression of the death drive — подавление влечения к смерти

destructive and violent tendencies within society — разрушительные и насильственные тенденции в обществе

pessimistic outlook — пессимистический взгляд

remains controversial — остается спорным

Exercise 9

Are these statements TRUE or FALSE?

1. Freud’s daughter, Anna, praised his writing style in «Beyond the Pleasure Principle.»
2. The concept of the death drive is universally accepted in psychology.
3. «Beyond the Pleasure Principle» was originally titled «A Short Account of the Death Drive.»
4. The repetition compulsion is a conscious attempt to master traumatic experiences.
5. «Beyond the Pleasure Principle» is considered a minor work in Freud’s oeuvre.

UNIT 9

Mindset: The New Psychology of Success by Carol Dweck (2006)

Key Ideas:

Fixed Mindset: Individuals believe their abilities are fixed and unchangeable. They avoid challenges, fear failure, and give up easily.
Growth Mindset: Individuals believe their abilities can be developed through effort and learning. They embrace challenges, learn from mistakes, and persist through adversity.
The Power of Feedback: When provided with feedback, individuals with a fixed mindset defend their abilities, while those with a growth mindset use it to improve.
The Impact of Language: The language we use shapes our mindset. Fixed mindset language focuses on praise for innate abilities, while growth mindset language emphasizes effort and learning.
Nurturing a Growth Mindset: Educators, parents, and leaders can foster a growth mindset by providing praise for effort, creating challenging opportunities, and encouraging reflection on mistakes.

Best Quotes:

«In a growth mindset, the hand you’re dealt is just the starting point for development.»
«Making mistakes isn’t a sign of weakness, but a sign that you’re trying to learn something new.»
«The passion for stretching yourself and sticking to it, even (or especially) when it’s not going well, is the hallmark of the growth mindset.»

Criticism: